Finance, as a study of theory and practice distinct from the field of economics, arose in the 1940s and 1950s with the works of Harry Markowitz, William F. Sharpe, Fischer Black, and Myron Scholes, to name just a few.234 Particular realms of finance—such as banking, lending, and investing, of course, money itself—have been around since the dawn of civilization in some form or another.
The financial transactions of the early Sumerians were formalized in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (circa 1800 BC). This set of rules regulated ownership or rental of land, employment of agricultural labor, and credit.5 Yes, there were loans back then, and yes, interest was charged on them—rates varied depending on whether you were borrowing grain or silver.
By 1200 BC, cowrie shells were used as a form of money in China. Coined money was introduced in the first millennium BC. King Croesus of Lydia (now Turkey) was one of the first to strike and circulate gold coins around 564 BC—hence the expression, “rich as Croesus.”
In ancient Rome, coins were stored in the basement of temples as priests or temple workers were considered the most honest, devout, and safest to safeguard assets. Temples also loaned money, acting as financial centers of major cities.
Early Stocks, Bonds, and Options
Belgium claims to be home to the first exchange, with an exchange in Antwerp dating back to 1531. During the 16th century, the East India Company became the first publicly-traded company as it issued stock and paid dividends on proceeds from its voyages. The London Stock Exchange was created in 1773 and was followed by the New York Stock Exchange less than 20 years later.
The earliest recorded bond dates back to 2400 B.C., as a stone tablet recorded debt obligations that guaranteed repayment of grain.12 During the Middle Ages, governments began issuing debts to fund war efforts. In the 17th century, the Bank of England was created to finance the British Navy.13 The United States also began issuing Treasury bonds to support the Revolutionary War.
Options contracts can be found dating back to the Bible. In Genesis 29, Laban offers Jacob the option to marry his daughter in exchange for seven years of labor. However, this example demonstrates the difficulty of preserving obligations, as Laban reneged the agreement after Jacob’s labor was complete.
In Aristotle’s 4th-century philosophical work Politics, the early practice of options is outlined through an anecdote by the philosopher Thales. Believing a great future harvest of olives in the coming year, Thales pre-emptively acquired the rights to all olive presses in Chios and Miletus. Regarding options on an exchange, both forward and options contracts were integrated into Amsterdam’s sophisticated clearing process by the mid-17th century.